Books

Date:between 27 and 23 BC

De Architectura — Marcus Vitruvius Pollio

The following passages, taken from Books IX and X of Vitruvius, describe several inventions attributed to Ctesibius of Alexandria, including hydraulic pumps, pneumatic devices, and the water organ. The text illustrates the operating principles based on air compression and hydraulic flow regulation, dwelling in particular on the mechanical structure of the hydraulis: cylinders, valves, air ducts, keys, and sounding pipes. The technical terminology reflects the ancient mechanical tradition and modern translations of the treatise.

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Date:between 27 and 23 BC

De architectura, Book X by Vitruvius

In these passages Vitruvius describes the inventions of Ctesibius of Alexandria, a Hellenistic engineer and inventor regarded as the father of ancient pneumatics. After recounting the origins of his first observations on compressed air, the text illustrates several hydraulic and pneumatic machines, leading up to the description of the water organ, an instrument in which regulated air pressure fed the sounding pipes.

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Date:approx. 1st century BC

Pneumatica, Book I — Hero of Alexandria

In these passages from the Pneumatica, Hero of Alexandria describes two different pneumatic organs: an altar organ operated manually and a second instrument driven by wind power through a mechanism similar to a windmill. The text details the systems for compressing and distributing air, focusing on pistons, valves, hydraulic reservoirs, ducts and devices for opening the sounding pipes. Of particular interest is the description of the pipe-control mechanisms, in which primitive forms of keyboard and automatic air-supply systems applied to musical production can be recognised.

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Date:414-416 d.C.

Augustine

These passages from Augustine of Hippo’s Commentary on the Psalms contain references to the musical instruments mentioned in the biblical tradition, including the organ, psaltery, lyre, timbrel and cymbals. The text clarifies the use of the term organum in late antiquity and distinguishes the bellows-operated organ from other stringed and wind instruments.

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Date:8th–9th century

Annales Regni Francorum

This passage from the Annales Regni Francorum documents one of the earliest references to the organ in the Frankish world. The instrument appears as a gift sent by Emperor Constantine to King Pippin in 757.

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Date:9th century AD

De gestis Caroli Magni — Monk of Saint Gall

This passage from the De gestis Caroli Magni by the Monk of Saint Gall describes the arrival at the Carolingian court of instruments from the Byzantine world, including several organs. The text contains references to the construction of the instrument, the bellows, the bronze pipes and the acoustic characteristics attributed to the organ within Carolingian musical culture.

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Date:9th century AD

De Musica — Gerlandi Fragmenta

These fragments attributed to Gerland deal with the measurement of organ pipes and the proportional ratios between length, diameter and musical consonances. The text describes the mathematical criteria used to obtain intervals such as the diapason, diapente and diatessaron, together with the construction procedures for bass, treble and super-treble pipes according to medieval music theory.

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Date:9th century

De Mensura Fistularum in Organis — Anonymous

These texts in the anonymous treatise De Mensura Fistularum in Organis describe the mathematical and proportional criteria used in the construction of medieval organ pipes. The passages illustrate the ratios between length, diameter and musical intervals, dwelling on the procedures for calculating consonances, the arrangement of ranks, and the methods for measuring pipes in relation to the theoretical systems of medieval music. Some sections also include directions for the construction of cymbals and the organistrum, within the framework of medieval organological and craft practices.

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Date:11th century

Tractatus de mensura fistularum — Eberhard of Freising

These introductory texts to the treatise De mensura fistularum in organis, attributed to Eberhard of Freising and transmitted in several medieval manuscripts, illustrate the theoretical and practical principles used in the measurement of organ pipes. The passages describe the ratios between length, diameter and musical consonances, presenting different methods for calculating pipes, the organisation of organ ranks and courses, and directions for the casting of nolae, that is, small organ bells.

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Date:first half of the 11th century

De Diversis Artibus — Theophilus

These chapters of the De diversis artibus by Theophilus describe the construction of a medieval organ, focusing both on the fabrication of pipes and on the making of the wind chest, sliders and bellows. The text documents with remarkable precision the craft techniques employed in working copper, in soldering and in assembling the various parts of the instrument. Of particular relevance are the directions concerning the ventilation of the organ, the air-supply systems and the arrangement of the sliders, which show a fully developed organbuilding […]

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Date:1070 d.C.

Musica — Aribo

These passages from Aribo’s Musica deal with the measurement of organ pipes and the proportional ratios employed in medieval music theory. The text describes various methods for calculating pipes according to the consonances of the musical system, focusing on the relationship between length, diameter and musical intervals, as well as including directions on the arrangement of notes and the material construction of metal pipes.

Graphics and Drawing on Paper

Date:11th–12th century

Musica, Book III — Ioannes Cotton

These passages from the De musica of Ioannes Cotton deal with the nature of musical sound, the classification of instruments and the role of music in medieval theoretical and ecclesiastical tradition. The text distinguishes between natural and artificial instruments, mentions organs, cymbals and stringed instruments within the framework of music theory, and also introduces the concept of diaphony or organum, linking it to medieval polyphonic practice and the terminology of the organ.

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Date:approx. 13th century

De musica — Engelbert of Admont

These passages from the De musica by Engelbert of Admont contain theoretical reflections on medieval musical terminology and on the organisation of consonances and tones in musical instruments. The text distinguishes the meaning of the terms organum and instrumentum and refers to the arrangement of keys and voices in organs according to the theoretical system of medieval music.

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